Black Farmers Fight for Climate Justice in NC
By Darius Spearman (africanelements)
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North Carolina’s Black farmers stand at a crucial point where history, environmental harm, and the urgent push for climate and environmental justice all meet. Their current efforts are deeply rooted in a painful past marked by the systemic loss of land, unfair policies, and being exposed to too many environmental dangers (pulitzercenter.org). Today, these farmers, including figures like Mark Paylor Jr. and groups such as the North Carolina Black Alliance, are not only cultivating food but also developing sustainable methods and organizing for fair policies. Their aim is to build a more resilient and equitable future for everyone (pulitzercenter.org).
The Enduring Legacy of Land Loss
The struggle for owning land and receiving fair treatment has shaped the lives of Black farmers in North Carolina since they were freed from slavery. After the Civil War, Black Americans sought economic freedom through land ownership. Across the country, Black-owned farmland reached its highest point around 16 million acres by 1910 (nature4justice.earth). In North Carolina, Black farmers once owned nearly 25 percent of the state’s farms (pulitzercenter.org).
However, this period of progress was brief. A combination of unfair practices and economic pressures systematically undermined Black land ownership. One major factor was the implementation of Jim Crow laws, which were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern and some Border States from the late 19th to the mid-20th centuries (nature4justice.earth). These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, effectively making white supremacy legal. Jim Crow laws mandated separate public facilities, limited voting rights through unfair practices, and restricted economic and social opportunities for Black people (nature4justice.earth). For Black farmers, these laws contributed significantly to land loss and prevented them from building wealth by denying them access to credit, markets, and legal protections (nature4justice.earth). Additionally, the persistent threat of racial violence made it difficult for Black Americans to acquire and keep their land (pulitzercenter.org).
Another significant contributor to land loss was the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which implemented policies that actively denied Black farmers access to vital loans, aid, and programs readily available to their white counterparts (pulitzercenter.org). This systemic discrimination was documented as early as 1965 and led to widespread farm closures and foreclosures (pulitzercenter.org). For instance, a lawsuit filed by the North Carolina Black Farmers organization against the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA) in 1980 highlighted these disparities (pulitzercenter.org). The lawsuit’s findings showed that Black farmers received fewer and smaller loans, were less likely to get deferred payment schedules, and more likely to face property liquidation upon default (pulitzercenter.org). While specific details about its ultimate legal outcome, such as a large settlement or direct policy overhaul, are not as widely documented as later cases, this lawsuit served as an important precursor by establishing a documented pattern of discrimination. This legal action brought public and legal attention to the pervasive issues of racial bias within federal agricultural lending institutions, laying foundational groundwork for future legal challenges like *Pigford v. Glickman* (nature4justice.earth).
Black-Owned Farmland in the U.S.: Peak vs. Decline
Black-Owned Farmland in the U.S.: Peak vs. Decline
16M Acres (1910)
<1.6M Acres (1997)
This visualization shows the peak of Black-owned farmland in 1910 compared to the drastic decline by 1997 due to systemic land loss (nature4justice.earth).
Many Black families also passed down land informally, often without formal wills or estate planning. This “heirs’ property” status made land vulnerable to forced sales and exploitation, contributing significantly to generational land loss (pulitzercenter.org). North Carolina has been identified as having one of the biggest issues with heirs’ property among Southern states (pulitzercenter.org). Economically disadvantaged, Black farmers often lacked access to capital and fair markets, which made it difficult for them to compete. This led to a dramatic decline in their numbers and acreage (pulitzercenter.org).
The consequences of these historical injustices have been staggering. Between 1920 and 1997, Black farmers lost over 90 percent of the 16 million acres they once owned (nature4justice.earth). This land loss, valued at an estimated $300-$326 billion today, has significantly widened the racial wealth gap and stifled intergenerational wealth building in Black communities (pulitzercenter.org). This valuation is primarily derived from research and economic analyses that quantify the cumulative value of land and wealth lost due to discriminatory practices and policies (nature4justice.earth). Economists like Dania Francis have estimated this value by factoring in not only the land’s market value but also the lost income, appreciation, and potential for wealth accumulation across generations (nature4justice.earth). The landmark *Pigford v. Glickman* lawsuit in 1997, accusing the USDA of discriminatory practices, resulted in one of the largest civil rights class-action settlements in U.S. history, but systemic issues persisted (pulitzercenter.org). Organizations such as the Land Loss Prevention Project, founded in North Carolina in 1982, emerged specifically to curtail this epidemic loss of Black-owned land (pulitzercenter.org).
The Birthplace of Environmental Justice
Beyond losing land, Black communities in North Carolina have also carried a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution. The environmental justice movement itself traces its origins to a pivotal moment in North Carolina history. In 1982, residents of Warren County, a poor Black farming community, protested the state’s decision to dump 40,000 cubic yards of soil contaminated with cancer-causing PCBs in their neighborhood (pulitzercenter.org). This act of civil disobedience was led by figures like Ben Chavis, who coined the term “environmental racism” (pulitzercenter.org).
Environmental racism is a term coined by Dr. Benjamin Chavis in 1987. He defined it as racial discrimination in environmental policy-making, the enforcement of regulations and laws, the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste facilities, the official sanctioning of the presence of life-threatening poisons and pollutants in communities of color, and the history of excluding people of color from leadership in the environmental movement (nature4justice.earth). It highlights how environmental hazards are disproportionately located in communities inhabited by people of color, leading to significant health disparities and reduced quality of life (nature4justice.earth). Although the landfill was ultimately built despite significant protests, the Warren County protests are widely recognized as the birthplace of the environmental justice movement (pulitzercenter.org). The state of North Carolina had identified the location as suitable for hazardous waste disposal based on geological and logistical assessments, prioritizing its perceived need for a PCB disposal site and its legal authority to proceed (nature4justice.earth). Despite failing to stop the construction, the protests successfully brought national attention to environmental injustice, catalyzing the movement (nature4justice.earth). This incident underscored the inseparable link between racial equality and environmental concerns (pulitzercenter.org).
Environmental justice, a closely related concept, refers to the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies (nature4justice.earth). It acknowledges that environmental hazards and benefits are often unequally distributed, with low-income communities and communities of color often bearing the brunt of pollution and lacking access to healthy environments (nature4justice.earth). A core principle of environmental justice is the right of all people to live in healthy and sustainable communities, free from environmental hazards (nature4justice.earth).
Black Farmers on the Frontlines of Climate Action
Today, the lasting effects of land loss and environmental injustice continue to shape the experiences of Black farmers in North Carolina. Nevertheless, a new wave of activism and sustainable farming is emerging, with organizations like the North Carolina Black Alliance (NCBA) leading the way (pulitzercenter.org). The NCBA is dedicated to advocating for environmental justice, ensuring clean air and water in Black communities, and addressing the disproportionate effects of climate change (ncblackalliance.org). They also champion energy justice and equitable access to clean energy infrastructure (ncblackalliance.org).
Mark Paylor Jr. and 4M Farms exemplify this contemporary movement. Paylor operates 4M Farms in Hurdle Mills, Person County, as a Black farmer actively engaged in environmental mitigation (pulitzercenter.org). By keeping his land undeveloped and employing sustainable methods, he helps prevent pollutants from entering the environment and contributes to moving towards net-zero carbon emissions (pulitzercenter.org). Net-zero carbon emissions refers to achieving an overall balance between the amount of carbon emitted into the atmosphere and the amount removed (nature4justice.earth). This balance is reached by reducing greenhouse gas emissions as much as possible and then offsetting any remaining emissions through carbon removal strategies (nature4justice.earth). Ja’Nell Henry, executive director of the Black Farmers’ Market, notes that Black farmers like Paylor are “environmental mitigators” and “conservationists” who safeguard land against erosion and promote healthy soil (pulitzercenter.org).
Black farmers in North Carolina are leveraging ancestral farming techniques, such as conservation tillage and composting, to regenerate soil and sequester carbon (pulitzercenter.org). To sequester carbon means to capture and store atmospheric carbon dioxide in a way that prevents it from entering or re-entering the atmosphere (nature4justice.earth). This process can occur naturally through biological, chemical, or physical processes, or through engineered solutions (nature4justice.earth). The primary goal of carbon sequestration is to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, thereby mitigating climate change (nature4justice.earth). These traditional methods help actively combat climate change and reduce its impacts (pulitzercenter.org). Ancestral farming techniques refer to traditional, often indigenous or historically practiced agricultural methods that have been passed down through generations, particularly within African American communities, and are now being revived for their ecological benefits and cultural significance (nature4justice.earth). These techniques often encompass a broader philosophy of working in harmony with nature, prioritizing soil health, biodiversity, and sustainable resource management. They include practices such as intercropping, companion planting, water harvesting, seed saving, and reliance on local ecological knowledge (nature4justice.earth). These methods enhance soil health, reduce erosion, and improve water retention, which is crucial as unpredictable weather patterns, including extreme droughts and intense flooding from hurricanes, disproportionately threaten their livelihoods (pulitzercenter.org).
Intersecting Crises: Food, Pollution, and Vulnerability
The challenges confronting Black farmers are complex, connecting historical issues of land access with current environmental threats and food insecurity. Black farmers often have limited access to the financial and technical resources necessary to adapt to a changing climate, making them particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events (pulitzercenter.org). This vulnerability is exacerbated by systemic inequities that have contributed to widespread food insecurity in Black communities (pulitzercenter.org). In North Carolina, Black households experience food insecurity at more than double the rate of white households (pulitzercenter.org). In 2021, 21 percent of Black individuals in North Carolina were food insecure, compared to 8 percent of white individuals (pulitzercenter.org). More recent data from 2023 shows 27 percent of Black individuals in the Carolinas experiencing food insecurity (feedingthecarolinas.org). This lack of access to healthy foods contributes to higher incidences of chronic diseases (pulitzercenter.org).
Food Insecurity Rates in North Carolina (2021/2023)
Food Insecurity Rates in North Carolina (2021/2023)
Black Individuals (21-27%)
White Individuals (8%)
This visualization compares food insecurity rates for Black individuals (2021/2023) versus White individuals (2021) in North Carolina ((pulitzercenter.org), (feedingthecarolinas.org)).
Furthermore, Black communities frequently live near environmentally hazardous facilities like Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), which are prevalent in southeastern North Carolina (pulitzercenter.org). CAFOs, also known as industrial animal farms or factory farms, are agricultural facilities that house and feed a large number of livestock animals in confined areas for at least 45 days in any 12-month period (nature4justice.earth). These operations are characterized by their scale and the concentration of animals, which often leads to significant environmental concerns, particularly regarding waste management and air and water pollution (nature4justice.earth). The prevalence of CAFOs in southeastern North Carolina can be attributed to a combination of historical, economic, geographical, and political factors (nature4justice.earth). The region’s suitable climate for year-round animal production, availability of land, and historical agricultural legacy made it attractive for the expansion of industrial hog and poultry operations (nature4justice.earth). These operations store millions of gallons of untreated animal waste, contributing to air and water pollution and exacerbating health burdens on already vulnerable communities (pulitzercenter.org).
Organizing for a Just and Sustainable Future
Black farmers and their allies are not passively enduring these challenges. They are actively organizing for systemic change. The North Carolina Black Alliance works to build “sustainable Black political power” and ensure Black voices are heard in policy decisions across environmental justice, healthcare, democracy, and criminal justice (pulitzercenter.org). Building sustainable Black political power entails a multi-faceted approach aimed at empowering Black communities to effectively advocate for their interests and influence policy decisions over the long term (nature4justice.earth). This goes beyond episodic electoral campaigns and includes continuous voter registration and engagement, leadership development within Black communities, policy advocacy, coalition building with other marginalized groups, and holding elected officials accountable (nature4justice.earth). The NCBA partners with initiatives like the Black Farmers’ Market, which provides crucial market access for Black farmers and brings healthy, often organically grown, produce to food-insecure communities (pulitzercenter.org).
There are ongoing calls for federal and state legislation to protect Black farmers from further land loss, provide land grants for new Black farmers, and restore the lost land base (pulitzercenter.org). Advocates emphasize the need for less restrictive and more flexible agricultural programs that ease the financial burdens and improve access to resources for Black farmers (pulitzercenter.org). Restrictive agricultural programs are government policies and initiatives that, often unintentionally or through their implementation, create barriers for certain farmers, particularly Black farmers, in accessing resources, capital, and markets (nature4justice.earth). Historically, USDA loan programs were administered in a way that disproportionately denied Black farmers access to credit, or provided them with less favorable terms, compared to white farmers (nature4justice.earth). Additionally, complex bureaucratic processes and extensive paperwork requirements for federal programs, including grants and disaster relief, can be significant barriers for farmers who lack resources or administrative support (nature4justice.earth).
Farmers like Kendrick Ransome of Golden Organic Farm in Princeville are actively employing regenerative agricultural practices such as conservation tillage and composting to build soil health, sequester carbon, and improve resilience against climate impacts (pulitzercenter.org). Regenerative agriculture is a holistic farming approach that focuses on restoring and enhancing ecosystem health, particularly soil health, while producing food (nature4justice.earth). It encompasses a set of practices designed to reverse climate change by rebuilding soil organic matter and biodiversity, improving the water cycle, and increasing carbon sequestration (nature4justice.earth). These practices not only benefit the environment but also address food insecurity in majority-Black counties (pulitzercenter.org).
Estimated Value of Black Farmers’ Land Loss
Estimated Value of Black Farmers’ Land Loss
Value of Black-owned land and wealth lost due to systemic discrimination.
This visualization illustrates the estimated current value of land and generational wealth lost by Black farmers due to historical injustices (nature4justice.earth).
Addressing heirs’ property issues remains a critical area of focus. Institutions like North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (NC A&T University) are working to educate Black farmers on these complexities (pulitzercenter.org). As a land-grant institution, NC A&T University is actively involved in educating Black farmers on heirs’ property issues through various programs and initiatives (nature4justice.earth). These efforts typically involve providing legal assistance, offering workshops and educational seminars, conducting outreach, and developing resources to help heirs’ property owners understand their rights and options (nature4justice.earth). The university often collaborates with legal aid organizations, extension services, and community groups to address the complexities of heirs’ property, which is a significant cause of land loss in Black communities (nature4justice.earth). Their aim is to help Black farmers understand clear ownership, generational wealth, and farm maintenance to prevent further land loss (pulitzercenter.org).
Despite the historical injustices and ongoing challenges, North Carolina’s Black farmers, supported by dedicated organizations, are actively shaping a future where land ownership, environmental health, and food security are accessible to all (pulitzercenter.org). Their fight for climate and environmental justice is a continuation of a centuries-long struggle for equity and self-determination, offering vital lessons and pathways toward a more sustainable and just society (pulitzercenter.org).
About the Author
Darius Spearman is a professor of Black Studies at San Diego City College, where he has been teaching for over 20 years. He is the founder of African Elements, a media platform dedicated to providing educational resources on the history and culture of the African diaspora. Through his work, Spearman aims to empower and educate by bringing historical context to contemporary issues affecting the Black community.
