Africa’s Colonial Scars: Border Conflicts

By Darius Spearman (africanelements)

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The Scramble and Artificial Lines

Imagine a time when powerful nations gathered in a distant land, meticulously drawing lines on a map, deciding the fate of an entire continent without consulting its people. This is precisely what unfolded during the “Scramble for Africa” in the late 19th century, culminating in the infamous Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. European powers convened to formally partition Africa, creating borders with little understanding or respect for the continent’s rich ethnic, cultural, and political landscapes (African colonial boundaries and nation-building). These arbitrary divisions frequently sliced through existing ethnic groups and pre-colonial political entities, setting the stage for enduring conflicts and tensions in the years that followed.

These colonizers employed strategies like “divide and rule,” direct rule, and assimilation, purposefully splitting ethnic groups to weaken social cohesion and prevent unified resistance (Colonial Borders in Africa: Improper Design and its Impact on African Borderland Communities). For example, the Mandinka people, who once formed a powerful kingdom, found their communities fractured by colonial-era river boundaries in The Gambia, hampering trade and economic integration decades after gaining independence (The Impact of Colonial Borders on Africa). Similarly, the Nuer ethnic group was split across South Sudan and Ethiopia, leading distinct subgroups such as the Lou-Nuer and Jikany-Nuer to develop hostilities purely because of national divisions (Colonial Borders in Africa: Improper Design and its Impact on African Borderland Communities). The impact of these imposed borders continues to resonate deeply within African communities today, shaping political realities and economic opportunities.

Resource Rich Conflicts

In the expansive adjacent oceanic zones, colonial administrative choices also ignored local realities. Offshore maritime territories like Cabinda, an Angolan exclave separated from the main country by the Democratic Republic of Congo, became prime examples of these arbitrary divisions. Cabinda’s immense oil wealth, for instance, has fueled prolonged separatist conflicts involving groups like the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) (The Impact of Colonial Borders on Africa). This ongoing struggle reflects a deep-seated grievance over resource control and political autonomy, highlighting the significant economic and security consequences stemming from colonial-era maritime divisions.

The price of these conflicts is truly staggering. For instance, the separatist movement’s attack on Cabinda’s oil facilities in 2023 inflicted approximately $45 million in damages. These attacks underscore the vulnerability of critical infrastructure when borders are not only arbitrary but also tied to vast natural resources. Economic prosperity and stability remain elusive goals in these regions while tensions over control persist. Furthermore, such incidents affect the broader African diaspora, emphasizing the need for equitable resource sharing to promote peace and development.

A Legacy of Unresolved Disputes

Decades after independence, many African nations continue to grapple with violent and fragile conflicts directly linked to unresolved colonial border legacies. As of 2025, there are over 100 active territorial disputes and sovereignty conflicts across the continent (Territorial Disputes and Sovereignty Conflicts in Africa: The Situation in 2025). These flashpoints frequently escalate into violence or military mobilizations, disrupting lives and hindering progress. A stark illustration of this enduring challenge can be seen in the renewed tensions between Ethiopia and Eritrea, where colonial-era boundary ambiguities persist alongside more recent internal conflicts.

Territorial conflicts are disputes over the physical boundaries and control of land or sea areas between states or groups. Sovereignty conflicts, conversely, concern the authority and legitimacy to govern and exert legal control over a territory. Many African conflicts originate from overlapping claims created by colonial borders that split ancestral ethnic groups and historical territories (Colonial Borders in Africa: Improper Design and its Impact on African Borderland Communities). These disputes may involve land ownership, resource rights, or political control. Therefore, the consequences of these unresolved legacies extend far beyond simple lines on a map, touching every aspect of daily life for affected communities.

The Complex Reality of Borders

While many believe colonial borders were drawn entirely at random, the reality is more complex. A significant portion of Africa’s bilateral borders, specifically 62 percent, actually align with precolonial territorial boundaries of indigenous states (Are colonial-era borders holding Africa back?). This finding reveals that some boundaries, including maritime zones, possess a deeper historical legitimacy rooted in pre-existing political frontiers and geographical features (Endogenous Colonial Borders: Precolonial States and Geography in the Partition of Africa). Nevertheless, enforcement and recognition issues remain central to the ongoing conflicts.

Precolonial legitimacy signifies the recognition of territorial boundaries and governance systems that existed before European colonial rule. In contrast, colonial legitimacy derives from the borders and authority imposed by European powers. Despite the historical alignment of many African borders with precolonial divisions, colonial state sovereignty and international recognition grant current borders their legal authority. This creates an ongoing debate about how much precolonial borders should influence modern legitimacy or claims, shaping national identities and international relations across the continent.

Economic Burdens and Cross-Border Challenges

The arbitrary nature of colonial borders imposes significant economic burdens on African nations and communities today. One striking example is the economic fallout in The Gambia, where colonial-era river boundaries, in particular, severely impacted trade and socio-economic integration. Delays at these borders alone cost regional traders approximately $50 million annually (The Impact of Colonial Borders on Africa). This figure does not even account for the lost opportunities, reduced livelihoods, or the human cost of disrupted trade routes that once connected communities.

In addition to trade disruptions, the cost of conflict arising from these borders is equally impactful. The $45 million in damages caused by FLEC’s 2023 attack on oil facilities in Cabinda underscores the economic fragility of these resource-rich regions when boundaries are contested. While specific per capita impacts are complex to calculate, these substantial figures represent direct financial losses that could otherwise be invested in education, healthcare, and infrastructure. These economic setbacks disproportionately affect the lives of everyday African people, perpetuating cycles of poverty and instability in regions already scarred by historical injustices.

Pathways to Peace and Resolution

Despite the complexity and depth of these historical challenges, progress toward resolving oceanic and terrestrial conflicts influenced by colonial-era borders is underway. These solutions require multifaceted approaches that prioritize respect for local identities, fairness in resource allocation, and adherence to international legal frameworks (Territorial Disputes and Sovereignty Conflicts in Africa: The Situation in 2025). Reassessing colonial boundaries through inclusive methods involving affected communities can significantly reduce tensions. This approach acknowledges deep-seated ethnic and social ties, rather than blindly upholding colonial lines that have caused so much strife.

Regional diplomatic cooperation plays a crucial role in managing disputes. Initiating joint boundary commissions and engaging in international mediation have proven effective strategies. For example, the agreement between Cameroon and Nigeria to end their long-standing border dispute, targeted for validation by the end of 2025, exemplifies successful diplomatic efforts (Cameroon, Nigeria agree to end border dispute – VOA). These mechanisms are essential for achieving peaceful resolutions. Furthermore, emphasizing resource sharing over zero-sum territorial claims, especially in resource-rich maritime zones like the oil fields in Cabinda, can avert violent conflict and foster shared economic development. Such agreements, informed by various international legal frameworks, including rulings from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and initiatives like the African Union Border Programme, serve as critical blueprints for future dispute resolution.

Building a Shared Future

Beyond the direct violent clashes, ethnic divisions imposed by colonial borders have led to profound consequences for African communities. These outcomes include political disenfranchisement, exclusion from power structures, and marginalization (Colonial Borders in Africa: Improper Design and its Impact on African Borderland Communities). Such divisions often spark recurrent conflicts rooted in resource competition and identity politics. This continued instability obstructs nation-building efforts and undermines the potential for collective progress across the continent.

The colonial-era borders, established through practices like the Berlin Conference, persist as legal international boundaries today, shaping contemporary disputes over land and maritime zones. Because many of these lines overlap with communities and natural resources without regard for ethnic or historical patterns, they continue to produce ongoing tensions. However, by embracing comprehensive strategies that prioritize community involvement, fair resource distribution, and robust diplomatic and legal frameworks, African nations can work towards genuine and lasting peace. This inclusive approach will foster a future where borders serve as bridges connecting communities rather than dividing them, allowing all people of African descent to thrive.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Darius Spearman has been a professor of Black Studies at San Diego City College since 2007. He is the author of several books, including Between The Color Lines: A History of African Americans on the California Frontier Through 1890. You can visit Darius online at africanelements.org.