Rising Seas & Toxic Sites: Black Communities at Risk
By Darius Spearman (africanelements)
Support African Elements at patreon.com/africanelements and hear recent news in a single playlist. Additionally, you can gain early access to ad-free video content.
A recent study sounds a severe alarm about environmental dangers facing Black communities across the United States. It warns that thousands of hazardous sites are vulnerable to coastal flooding as sea levels continue to rise (tandfonline.com). Sadly, a disproportionate number of these dangerous locations sit near impoverished and non-white neighborhoods. The Chevron refinery in Richmond, California, stands as a telling example, highlighting a deep-seated issue rooted firmly in the nation’s past (tandfonline.com). The story behind these headlines is a long one, marked by centuries of unfair treatment and systemic neglect. Black communities have historically carried the heaviest burden of industrial pollution, and now, also face the worst impacts of a changing climate (tandfonline.com).
Environmental Racism: A Historical Burden
The unfair placement of toxic sites near Black communities is not an accident; it is a direct legacy of environmental racism (tandfonline.com). Environmental racism refers to the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards on communities of color. This is marked by the intentional siting of polluting industries and hazardous waste facilities in or near these communities . This systemic issue also involves the exclusion of minority groups from environmental policy-making, rooted in historical racism and leading to health disparities .
Foundational discrimination set the stage. Practices like redlining pushed Black communities into undesirable areas (tandfonline.com). Redlining was a discriminatory practice by government and financial institutions, denying essential services to inner-city neighborhoods based on race or ethnicity . This systematic labeling of areas as “hazardous” for investment led to decay and exacerbated racial segregation, with industries targeting communities with fewer resources (tandfonline.com).
The American environmental justice movement traces its beginnings to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1968 Memphis Sanitation Strike, which highlighted racial disparities in environmental harms (tandfonline.com). Benjamin Chavis coined “environmental racism” in the early 1980s (tandfonline.com). A pivotal moment occurred in 1982 when residents of Warren County, North Carolina, protested a landfill for highly toxic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (tandfonline.com). PCBs are persistent organic chemicals, once used in industry, known to be highly toxic. Exposure to PCBs can cause cancer, developmental problems, and neurological disorders . This protest is widely recognized as a catalyst for the environmental justice movement (tandfonline.com).
Furthermore, the 1987 “Toxic Waste and Race in the United States” report provided concrete evidence. This landmark study confirmed that race was the most significant factor in predicting where commercial hazardous waste facilities were located ((tandfonline.com), (ucc.org)). Communities with two or more facilities had an average minority population more than three times higher than communities without them (38% versus 12%) ((tandfonline.com), (ucc.org)). The report also showed that three out of every five Black and Hispanic Americans lived near uncontrolled toxic waste sites (tandfonline.com).
Minority Population Near Hazardous Waste Facilities (1987)
This chart illustrates the stark difference in minority population percentages between communities with and without commercial hazardous waste facilities in 1987 ((tandfonline.com), (ucc.org)).
Environmental Justice: A Collective Fight
The clear evidence of environmental racism spurred the growth of a powerful social movement. The Environmental Justice Movement advocates for the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people. This includes individuals regardless of race, color, national origin, or income. It concerns the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws and policies . Its central goal is to address and correct the disproportionate burden of environmental pollution borne by minority and low-income communities .
Academics joined the fight, further solidifying the movement’s foundations. Dr. Robert Bullard’s 1990 book, “Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality,” chronicled the merging of social justice and environmental concerns, offering deeper understanding (tandfonline.com). In response to this growing evidence and advocacy, the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, began to take action. The EPA is an independent agency of the United States federal government. It was established to protect human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress . The agency first established the Environmental Equity Work Group in 1990, later forming the Office of Environmental Justice in 1992 ((tandfonline.com), (epa.gov)).
A significant step forward occurred in 1991 with the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit. This historic gathering led to the creation of the “Principles of Environmental Justice” (tandfonline.com). These principles are a set of seventeen guiding principles that articulate the fundamental demands and values of the movement. They emphasize self-determination, environmental protection, public health, cultural integrity, and the right to a clean and sustainable environment for all . For example, the principles demand the right to political, economic, and environmental self-determination for all people . They also call for universal protection from toxic wastes and a safe environment for everyone . Building on this momentum, President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order 12898 in 1994. This order directed federal agencies to identify and address any disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of their programs on minority and low-income populations (tandfonline.com).
People of Color Near Hazardous Waste Facilities (2000)
This visualization highlights that by 2000, a significantly higher percentage of people of color lived within three kilometers of hazardous waste facilities compared to their representation in the overall U.S. population (tandfonline.com).
Climate Change: A New Layer of Threat
Despite decades of activism, environmental injustice persists, amplified by climate change and rising sea levels (tandfonline.com). Black communities, already burdened by historical pollution, now face intensified threats.
A November 2025 study in *Nature Communications* warned that over 5,500 toxic sites nationwide could face coastal flooding by 2100, with nearly 3,800 threatened by 2050 under high-emissions scenarios (tandfonline.com). High-emissions scenarios project significant global warming and accelerated sea level rise due to unchecked greenhouse gas emissions . These facilities include those handling toxic waste and industrial pollutants (tandfonline.com).
The risk is not evenly distributed. Florida, New Jersey, California, Louisiana, New York, Massachusetts, and Texas account for nearly 80% of these at-risk hazardous sites (tandfonline.com). Beyond surface flooding, rising groundwater can mobilize contaminants from coastal Superfund sites (tandfonline.com). A Superfund site is a hazardous waste site designated by the EPA for cleanup due to severe contamination, implying extensive government intervention and long-term remediation . Even a small rise in groundwater can spread contaminants, creating new exposure pathways (tandfonline.com).
The study highlighted disproportionate impacts on vulnerable communities. Neighborhoods near at-risk facilities have higher shares of renters, impoverished households, and linguistically isolated households (tandfonline.com). Socially vulnerable communities are more susceptible to environmental hazards due to socioeconomic and demographic factors like poverty or racial minority status . Linguistically isolated households lack English fluency, hindering access to critical information during crises . Racial residential segregation and inequitable stormwater infrastructure further contribute to these racialized flood risks (tandfonline.com). Inequitable stormwater infrastructure, often a legacy of disinvestment in communities of color, leads to inadequate drainage and increased exposure to contaminated floodwaters . These communities often lack resources to prepare or recover from toxic floodwaters (tandfonline.com).
Richmond, California: A Microcosm of Injustice
The Chevron refinery in Richmond, California, serves as a stark, real-world example of these enduring issues. Established in 1901, this refinery has a long and troubling history of environmental challenges (tandfonline.com). It stands as the largest stationary emitter of greenhouse gases in California. Additionally, it has been responsible for numerous industrial accidents, with 304 accidents occurring between 1989 and 1995 alone (tandfonline.com). A major fire at the refinery in 2012 forced 15,000 residents to seek medical treatment (tandfonline.com).
The communities surrounding the Chevron refinery are largely made up of low-income people of color. About 79% of residents near the refinery fall into this demographic (tandfonline.com). Consequently, Richmond residents experience significantly higher rates of respiratory issues. They are almost twice as likely to go to emergency rooms for asthma attacks compared to other people in the region (tandfonline.com). This situation clearly demonstrates how historical siting practices continue to affect the health and well-being of Black and other marginalized communities.
Despite these overwhelming challenges, Richmond has become a vital center for the environmental justice movement. Organizations such as Communities for a Better Environment (CBE), founded in 1978, actively fight for environmental health and justice (tandfonline.com). These grassroots efforts have achieved notable successes. For instance, they blocked refinery expansion plans and secured substantial community benefits packages (tandfonline.com). Community benefits packages are agreements negotiated between developers or industries and community groups. They outline specific benefits and protections for the local community in exchange for support for a proposed project . These packages can include local hiring, job training, environmental protections like pollution monitoring, and funding for community services such as health clinics or affordable housing . Local environmental justice groups in Richmond contend that refinery pollution not only contributes to climate change but also causes high rates of asthma, cancer, and heart disease among residents (tandfonline.com).
The Enduring Burden and the Path Forward
The data consistently emphasizes the disproportionate burden borne by communities of color. The 1987 “Toxic Waste and Race” report first highlighted this, showing communities with commercial hazardous waste facilities had a much higher percentage of racial and ethnic residents ((tandfonline.com), (ucc.org)). A follow-up report in 2007, “Toxic Wastes and Race at Twenty,” confirmed that these disparities persisted. Race remained a more significant factor than poverty in determining the location of toxic waste sites (tandfonline.com). By 2000, people of color constituted 56% of those living within three kilometers of hazardous waste facilities, even though they made up only 30% of the national population (tandfonline.com).
Studies indicate that Black people are 75% more likely to live near oil and gas refineries (tandfonline.com). Nationwide, half of the people living within a mile of federal Superfund sites are from minority racial groups, while minorities make up only 40% of the overall U.S. population (tandfonline.com). The recent November 2025 study projects that over 5,500 toxic sites across the U.S. will be at risk of coastal flooding by 2100, with almost 3,800 facing threats by 2050 (tandfonline.com).
This convergence of rising sea levels and the historical placement of hazardous sites near Black communities presents an urgent and escalating crisis. The “history behind the headlines” reveals an extremely unfair distribution of environmental burdens. This situation demands comprehensive solutions that prioritize environmental justice and actively protect vulnerable populations from both current pollution and future climate impacts. It is time for meaningful change.
Projected Toxic Sites at Risk of Coastal Flooding
This chart projects the increasing number of toxic sites nationwide that could face coastal flooding by 2050 and 2100 due to rising sea levels (tandfonline.com).
About the Author
Darius Spearman is a professor of Black Studies at San Diego City College, where he has been teaching for over 20 years. He is the founder of African Elements, a media platform dedicated to providing educational resources on the history and culture of the African diaspora. Through his work, Spearman aims to empower and educate by bringing historical context to contemporary issues affecting the Black community.
