From the Cotton Fields to the Assembly Line: How Black Workers Fought for Economic Justice Against All Odds!!

Discover the complex and often heartbreaking history of African American labor in the United States, from slavery to the present day.

By Darius Spearman (africanelements)

About the author: Darius Spearman is a professor of Black Studies at San Diego College, where he has been pursuing his love of teaching since 2007. He is the author of several books, including Between The Color Lines: A History of African Americans on the California Frontier Through 1890. You can visit Darius online at africanelements.org.

Introduction: Slavery and the Stolen Labor of Enslaved Africans

The history of African American labor is a story of exploitation, oppression, and theft. For centuries, Black workers in America have been subjected to economic injustice, denied the right to unionize, and paid wages far below those of their white counterparts (Hill 32). This article will explore how African American labor has been stolen throughout US history, the rise of African-American labor unions, and the fight for economic justice.

The theft of Black labor began with the institution of slavery. From the 17th to the mid-19th century, millions of Africans were forcibly brought to the Americas and forced into chattel slavery (Berlin 16). White enslavers stole the labor of these enslaved Africans and used their labor to build the American economy (Johnson 74).

The Economic Impact of Slavery on the United States

By the mid-19th century, cotton accounted for more than half of all US exports (Olmstead and Rhode 25). Enslaved Africans were the primary labor force responsible for producing this cotton, which helped to make the US a significant player in the global economy (Baptist 67).

The value of enslaved Africans in the US was estimated to be around $3.5 billion in 1860 (Gerteis 28). That number was more than the value of all factories, railroads, and other capital investments in the US at the time (Foner 111).

From the 17th to the mid-19th century, millions of Africans were forcibly enslaved and brought to the Americas, where White enslavers used their labor to build the American economy

The slave trade was lucrative for Northern merchants and banks (Bolster 36). For example, Rhode Island was one of the leading centers of the US slave trade, with ships leaving from its ports carrying enslaved Africans to the South (Coughtry 49). Rhode Island was responsible for an estimated 60 to 90 percent of all US slave-trading voyages (DeWolf 22).

The use of enslaved African laborers extended to industries other than agriculture (Horne 17). For example, many enslaved Africans were forced to work in mines, producing coal, iron, and other minerals essential to the US economy (Mintz 39).

The economic disparities between white and Black Americans today are a visible legacy of slavery (Du Bois 98). For example, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2021, the median weekly earnings for Black workers were only 75.3% of those for white workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics 1).

Post-Civil War Labor Theft of Black Labor

The racialized nature of many industries and occupations is also traceable to slavery (Painter 62). For example, domestic service and agricultural work, traditionally performed by enslaved Africans, continue to be some of the lowest-paying and most racially segregated industries in the US today (Higginbotham 53). Those industries include:

Sharecropping and the Cycle of Debt and Poverty

Many African Americans became sharecroppers after the Civil War, working as tenant farmers on land owned by white landlords (Wright 70). Sharecroppers were often trapped in cycles of debt and poverty, as they gave a portion of their crops to the landlord in exchange for the use of land and supplies (Raper 12). This system allowed white landowners to exploit the labor of African American workers without paying them fair wages (Woodman 93).

Vagrancy Laws, Black Codes, and Convict Leasing

After the Civil War, many Southern states passed laws that criminalized activities such as unemployment and loitering (Litwack 75). These laws were often enforced disproportionately against African Americans, who were more likely to be unemployed or unable to pay fines (Blackmon 38). The result was a system of forced labor known as convict leasing, in which African Americans were imprisoned and forced to work on plantations or in mines without pay (Lichtenstein 29).

Even in industries where African Americans found employment, they were often paid less than their white counterparts for doing the same work (Katznelson 65). This racial wage gap persisted well into the 20th century and contributed to ongoing economic inequality between white and Black Americans (Wilson 47).

Discrimination in Domestic Service and Sanitation Work

African American women were often relegated to jobs as domestic workers, such as maids and cooks (Gordon 16). These jobs were poorly paid and lacked basic labor protections, such as overtime pay and workplace safety regulations (Harris 28).

African American sanitation workers, who were responsible for collecting garbage in many cities, were often subjected to dangerous working conditions and were paid less than white workers in similar jobs (Honey 34).

The Rise of African American Labor Unions

The discrimination African American sanitation workers faced was just one example of the larger issue of racism and segregation in the US labor movement (Foner and Garraty 88). In the early years, many labor unions actively excluded or marginalized African American workers, perpetuating a system that prioritized the concerns and needs of white male workers over those of other groups (Glaberman 17). This legacy of discrimination has had lasting impacts on the US economy and society and continues to shape the struggle for economic justice and the right to unionize today (Kersten 46).

This discrimination was not limited to the labor movement itself. Many industries were racially segregated, with African American workers confined to specific jobs and denied access to better-paying, more skilled positions (Gates and Burton 56). The federal government also played a role in perpetuating segregation, with policies such as the vagrancy laws and black codes that criminalized unemployment and other activities disproportionately affecting African Americans (Masur 27).

The racial segregation and discrimination that permeated many industries and policies in the early years of the labor movement made it difficult for African American workers to organize and advocate for their rights (Trotter 62). However, despite these challenges, the Colored National Labor Union (CNLU) emerged as the first union of African American workers in 1869 (Washington 21). The CNLU fought tirelessly for better working conditions and wages for Black workers, challenging the discriminatory practices commonplace in the workplace (Foner 134). Although the CNLU was short-lived, its legacy inspired future labor unions to continue the fight for economic justice and the right to unionize for African American workers (Marable 89).

African American Labor Unions and the Struggle for Workers’ Rights

The Colored National Labor Union (CNLU) was the first union of African American workers, founded in 1869 (Washington 21). The CNLU fought for better wages and working conditions for Black workers and challenged the rampant racial discrimination in the workplace (Foner 134). Although the CNLU was short-lived, it paved the way for future labor unions to fight for the rights of African American workers (Marable 89).

A. Philip Randolph and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

One of the most famous African American labor unions was the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, founded in 1925 by A. Philip Randolph (Anderson 15). The union represented the African American Pullman porters who were subjected to low wages and poor working conditions (Tye 28). The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters fought for better pay, working conditions, and union recognition (Pfeffer 47). Their victory in 1937 marked the first time a major corporation recognized a labor union of African American workers (Chateauvert 33).

The Civil Rights Movement and the Fight for Economic Justice

By necessity, African Americans took on most of the heavy lifting in the fight against the theft of Black labor through a convergence of the Civil Rights movement and the Black Labor Movement (Fairclough 22). They did so because the federal government has proven itself reluctant to act on behalf of Black people, absent pressure from Black movements (Sugrue 35).

Even during the Civil War, African American soldiers were often paid less than their white counterparts, even when performing the same duties (Cornish 48). This wage discrimination resulted from systemic racism and a belief among some white officers that African American soldiers were not as skilled or reliable as white soldiers (Glatthaar 52). Despite these challenges, African American soldiers played a crucial role in the Union’s victory in the Civil War (McPherson 66).

During World War II, the defense industries heavily recruited African Americans to work in such areas as shipbuilding and manufacturing (Crowley 71). However, they were often relegated to low-paying, menial jobs and denied opportunities for advancement (Kryder 83).

The March on Washington Movement

In the 1940s, A. Philip Randolph led The March on Washington Movement to protest racial discrimination in the defense industry and to demand better job opportunities for African Americans (Barnard 31). Randolph, the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, organized the march to pressure President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue an executive order banning discrimination in the defense industry (Dalfiume 48).

Randolph initially planned the march for July 1, 1941. However, he postponed it after Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which banned discrimination in defense industries and established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to monitor compliance (Borstelmann 39). However, Randolph continued to press for more vigorous action, arguing that the FEPC was not doing enough to enforce the order and that discrimination persisted in many industries outside defense (Wynn 67).

The March on Washington Movement gained momentum throughout 1942, as Randolph and other leaders organized rallies and demonstrations across the country (Slate 23). On June 25, 1942, Randolph met with Roosevelt to demand stronger action on civil rights issues, including the passage of anti-lynching legislation and the desegregation of the armed forces (Dennis 59).

Although the march never took place, the March on Washington Movement was a pivotal moment in the history of the Civil Rights Movement (Garfinkel 27). It helped to raise awareness about the need for stronger action to combat racial discrimination and laid the groundwork for later civil rights campaigns (Sitkoff 34). The legacy of the March on Washington Movement is still visible in the many protests and demonstrations that have taken place throughout US history to demand justice and equality for African Americans and other marginalized groups (Carson 72).

The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) and Employment Discrimination

In the mid-20th century, industrial unions began to fight against racial wage inequality (Lichtenstein 85). For example, the United Automobile Workers (UAW) fought for better pay and working conditions for Black union workers in the automobile industry (Boyle 61). The UAW also played a crucial role in the Civil Rights Movement, supporting the March on Washington in 1963 and helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Gordon 79).

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, African American workers began to organize against employment discrimination (Georgakas and Surkin 38). The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM), founded in 1968, was a radical labor union that fought for the rights of African American autoworkers in Detroit (Foner 239). DRUM challenged the racism of the United Auto Workers (UAW) and fought for better wages, working conditions, and job security for African American workers (Foner 243).

Conclusion: The Ongoing Struggle for Economic Justice and the Right to Unionize

The theft of Black labor has been a defining feature of US history. From the horrors of slavery to the racism and segregation that permeated the early labor movement, African American workers have faced economic injustice and discrimination. However, the rise of African American labor unions and the fight for workers’ rights has brought about significant change.

FAQs

In what ways has African American labor been stolen over the course of US History?

African American labor has been stolen through slavery, sharecropping, racial discrimination, and the denial of union representation.

What were the famous black labor unions?

Famous African American labor unions include the Colored National Labor Union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, and the Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement.

What was the first union of African American workers?

The Colored National Labor Union, founded in 1869, was the first union of African American workers.

When were African Americans allowed to join unions?

African Americans were allowed to join unions in the mid-20th century, after the passage of civil rights legislation.

Who founded the first black labor union?

The Colored National Labor Union was founded by Isaac Myers and other African American leaders in 1869.

Works Cited

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